Shawniekelley.com

 Southwest France is synonymous with sensuous Mediterranean beaches, hillside vineyards and peaceful hamlets, but upon closer look, the Languedoc’s rugged landscape reveals a turbulent history steeped in religious rebellion, bloody battles and grail legend. This region, historically known as the County of Toulouse, is home to the ruins of more than a dozen once-formidable fortresses, perched precariously in the craggy foothills of the Pyrenees. This wild, unspoiled landscape, with romantic vestiges of châteaux inspired the love songs of medieval Troubadours, but also served as the backdrop for one of the Catholic churches greatest heretical challenges. These remarkable castles represent massacres-en-masse, gruesome inquisitions and the ultimate suppression of a peaceful, three-hundred year-old religious movement. This is Cathar Country.

 At the turn of the thirteenth century, Christendom’s crusades to secure the Holy Land were in full swing, but Muslims weren't its only enemy. From the dawn of Christianity, the church struggled to suppress all ideas not inline with its’ orthodox beliefs- including certain reformed Christian groups. Most were easily snuffed out, but by the 1150’s a popular movement, known as Catharism, took root in the liberal regions of southern France.  

 Cathars (stemming from Katharos, the Greek word for “pure”) hailed from tenth-century Bulgaria, but gained serious foothold in twelfth-century Languedoc. The “good people,” as they called themselves, adhered to a mystical, austere doctrine of non-violence, vegetarianism, sexual abstinence and the renouncement of worldly possessions. Even more controversial and contradictory to Roman Catholic beliefs, were their views on the divinity of Jesus and belief that God ruled Heaven and the Devil ruled the Earth. Much to the Vatican’s dismay, Catharism was wildly popular and, as the region’s primary religion, became a dire threat to orthodoxy.

 Languedoc fell under the tutelage of the powerful and tolerant Counts of Toulouse, some of whom were active Cathars. Sympathizing towns and strongholds stretched from the Mediterranean Sea into the mountains around Toulouse, where a medieval chronicler claimed was “the source and origin of every form of heresy.” Open criticism of the Catholic Church’s corruption earned the Cathars strong-armed enemies, including Pope Innocent III and the notorious Baron Simon de Montfort. As the keeper of Christianity, the Pope had no choice but to snuff out this heresy once and for all. In 1208, he launched a formal holy war, also known as the Albigensian Crusade, offering absolution of sins to all who took part in the campaign, which was (even by medieval standards) particularly gruesome.

 The church did not expect such serious resistance from these leaders and the local populace, so its’ response was swift and violent. Within two years, a wholesale onslaught of Cathars was underway. Simon de Montfort and the Pope’s armies crushed the towns of Béziers, Minerve and Carcassonne into submission. Upward of 20,000 people were massacred in the first two decades and thousands more hunted down inquisition-style. After two decades of rampant persecution, Cathars had little choice but to head for the hills. The group took refuge in several spectacular châteaux built by the local nobility and given to the Cathars for their protection. Château de Montségur was one of them.

 The village of Montségur sits in the shadow of a near-vertical, rocky outcrop to which the shell of a seemingly impregnable castle clings. In 1232, the seat of the Cathar church was moved to this remote location along with the church’s treasury and, as legend holds, the Holy Grail. Montségur quickly became the heart of the Cathar resistance. In 1241, under pressure from the Pope and king, Raymond VII, Count of Toulouse, promised to destroy the castle and suppress the heresy, but did nothing. Two years later, the council of Béziers took it upon itself to “cut the head off the dragon” and sent a force of 10,000 strong to lay siege to Montségur.

 In April 1243, the army encircled the hill, hoping to starve the Cathars out. By spring of the following year, the 415 inhabitants of the castle surrendered. Given the option to renounce their faith or be burnt as heretics, this group of Cathars made one last defiant stand. As the story goes, on March 16, 1244, more than 200 men and women refused to convert, were dragged down the hill and marched straight into a bonfire. Montségur fell to French royal forces and the castle symbolically pulled down. It was however, rebuilt during the next three centuries, which is what stands today.

 Little evidence of Cathar occupation can be found at Montségur, let alone most castles in Languedoc, but this is not to say one can’t feel their presence. This tragic crusade permeates Languedoc’s very landscape. To climb steep pathways to these impressive locations offers a glimpse of the daunting task facing any army. The feelings of awe, isolation and safety the Cathars must have experienced are not lost on 21^st century pilgrims. Hulking ruins of magnificent castles, such as Lastours, Puilaurens and Termes, spring from their jagged rock foundations and can be seen for miles. Among the most breath-taking and best-preserved of the so-called Cathar castles are Peyrepertuse and Quéribus, which can be visited conveniently in a single daytrip. The rigorous trek to any of these castles is rewarded with jaw-dropping views of the mountains, sea and in some cases, other castles. A car is highly recommended to explore Cathar Country.

Christmas day 1492, a clumsy cargo ship runs aground on the north coast of present-day Haiti. Emerging from the Santa Maria was Italian-born explorer, Christopher Columbus. Not exactly the Orient he was in search of, but nevertheless this “beautiful island paradise” would please his benefactors. After receiving a generous welcome from the native Taínos, Columbus promptly claimed the island for the king and queen of Spain, naming it Hispaniola, or Little Spain. While Columbus would make three more voyages to Hispaniola, this would be the end of the road for his flagship Santa Maria. The vessel was disassembled and used to build a fortress named La Navidad. Thirty nine crewmen stayed behind to man the “New World’s” first Spanish settlement and comb the island for gold mines and other easy wealth.

Columbus was given a hero’s homecoming back in Spain, but upon his return to Hispaniola in 1493, the expedition found La Navidad in ashes and the men missing. Having muscled their way around the island, a powerful Indian chief lost patience with the garrison, destroying the fort and killing the men. Ignoring the shaky relationship with the locals, Columbus stayed on task. A gold rush began and the riches rolled in! This same year, the Pope, convinced the island’s limitless wealth could fund another crusade to the Holy Land, divided the New World between the Catholic countries of Spain and Portugal. This act not only reinforced their maritime supremacy throughout the known world, but predictably left the other European nations green with envy. This envy would eventually rear its’ ugly head in the form of piracy and war.

 Not disheartened, Columbus selected a spot farther east along the north coast of Hispaniola (in modern day Dominican Republic) to establish another colony named La Isabella, for the Spanish Queen. During the first decade, the relationship between the Spanish and the Taínos completely deteriorated. Indians were massacred, their villages systematically destroyed and a wholesale enslavement policy was enacted. The combination of forced labor and the Taínos’ insufficient immune systems against European diseases brought about their quick demise. Within a decade, the indigenous population was obliterated and Spain was in control of Hispaniola.  

 Finding the buggy north coast unsuitable for their settlement, Bartholomew Columbus, Christopher’s brother moved the capital to the south side of the island. Santo Domingo was founded in 1496 and soon became a wealthy and powerful city, serving as Spain’s premier Caribbean outpost. It was from here Spanish conquistadors such as, Cortez, Balboa and Ponce de Leon launched expeditions into Mexico and America.  More importantly, Santo Domingo was made a seat of the Spanish royal court from which the New World’s governors would rule. Bartholomew served as the New World’s first governor, but his unpopularity forced the Spanish king to replace him with Nicolas de Ovando, under whom Santo Domingo would grow and flourish.  

 Within the city’s massive walls the power of the Spanish crown and the grandeur of the Spanish Renaissance were translated into Caribbean stone. Santo Domingo gave rise to many “New World” firsts: the first cathedral; monastery; university; hospital and the oldest street in the Americas, Calle Las Damas. The Fortress of Santo Domingo (c. 1503) along with the Tower of Homage (c.1505) makes up the New World’s earliest military complex. These imposing structures guard the confluence of the Ozama River and Caribbean Sea and in due time, would be put to the test!

 It was in this fortress Christopher Columbus’s son, Diego came to Hispaniola and lived with his wife until the completion of their palace in 1514. The Alcazar de Colon, with its brick and stone façade and arched entranceway, combines an elegant Spanish country home with that of a Moorish stronghold. For sixty years, this fortified palazzo housed and protected Hispaniola’s Spanish Court.

 Within three decades of discovery, the Dominican gold mines were exhausted. Spain’s expansionary focus- and defense money- was diverted to North America. Military threats, likewise, shifted to the mainland colonies, but a different type of invader threatened the island- pirates! By the 1560’s, government-funded privateers, small-scale raiders and all sorts of nefarious characters swarmed throughout the Western Caribbean. Hefty walls were built along the Ozama River to repel naval attacks on Santo Domingo, but eventually proved defenseless at the hands of notorious English pirate, Sir Francis Drake- or as the Spanish called him, “El Draque” (The Dragon).

 In 1585, long time rivals, England and Spain went to war. Queen Elizabeth I wanted her fair share of the New World. She gave her favorite gentleman pirate, Sir Francis Drake permission and funding to harass the enemy and seize treasures from Spanish-held territories. Privateers of the Elizabethan era were often well-connected, wealthy shipmen through whom a monarch could wage war by proxy. The royal treasury had a lot to benefit by backing a pirate and taking a cut of loot! Should these swashbucklers run amok, she could easily wash her hands of their piratical behavior.

 Drake was among the most feared and revered privateer of his time. This crown-sponsored sea dog made quite a name for himself, looting cargo ships and pillaging ports throughout the Caribbean. On New Year’s Day 1586, the bane of Spain sailed into Santo Domingo. To experience El Draque’s twenty-ship fleet sailing into the harbor would have been one of the scariest sights in the sixteenth century Caribbean. Tales recall the residents of Santo Domingo readily giving up their treasures and the Spanish garrison easily being driven out of the city. Santo Domingo fell to Drake virtually unopposed. In typical pirate fashion, the crew plundered the city till there was no more. Drake held Santo Domingo ransom, burning it bit by bit, until England received a hefty sum from the Spanish king.

 As a protestant in an era of violent religious reform, Drake held little regard for his Catholic enemy. Destroying anything Spanish or Portuguese was fair game and plundering for God and country allowed for raiding of dubious legitimacy. Drake had no qualms about trashing Santo Domingo’s religious houses. In 1514, Diego Columbus laid the foundation stone for the New World’s first cathedral, Catedral de Santa Maria. It took three decades to complete, but only one day to destroy! The imposing arched entranceway, known as the Gate of Pardons, was once adorned with statues of saints, but they too fell victim to Drake’s marauding. The beautiful cathedral, with its unique synthesis of gothic, Renaissance and Baroque styles, was ransacked and served as Drake’s headquarters and a prison. The English were renowned for iconoclastic mutilation of statues, crucifixes and religious paintings. Church treasures were carried off and the records destroyed. Likewise, the San Francisco Monastery, built around 1508, was put to fire during Drake’s invasion. To this day, its skeletal remains stand hauntingly in the middle of the city while Mother Nature finishes the job Drake started. Once the city’s ransom was paid and when there was nothing left to exploit, Drake moved on. His attack instantly weakened the Spanish dominion over the island. Santo Domingo was left to the mercy of a new breed of pirates- the buccaneers. 

 By the early-seventeenth century, peace among the European nations left thousands of English and French sailors unemployed with few promising career choices. Many took up residence on various islands throughout the Caribbean. Unlike privateers of the earlier century who raided out of hatred of Spain and loyalty to their queen, these pirates were “men of the sea,” driven more by a love for loot, than a love for country.  Naturally, they were lured to Hispaniola where royal galleons and treasure laden ships sailed frequently through its waters from North America.  Also, Hispaniola was particularly attractive for its herds of wild cattle and pigs introduced by Christopher Columbus as a source of food for the early settlers. The hordes of hungry Frenchmen smoked their meat over open barbeques called ‘buccans,’ earning the nickname ‘buccaneers.’

 Hispaniola’s ever-growing buccaneer population didn’t sit well with Spain, whose resources were stretched thin and power on the decline. Determined to rid themselves of these lawless rogues, Spanish hunters were sent to slaughter the pigs, hoping the lack of food would drive the roving pirates out, but the plan backfired! Rather than hit the high seas, the French and Englishmen dug in. A motley crew of runaways, deserters, shipwrecked sailors and religious refugees set up shop on an island just off the north coast of Hispaniola. This would serve as their principal base for raids and play a key role in the history of piracy.  It was during this period that the close association between pirates and buccaneers would merge into today’s romantic vision of the quintessential swashbuckler.  Tortuga, a rocky, turtle-shaped island off the coast of Haiti, became the base of operations for fifty years of raiding by French, English and Dutch buccaneers. Tortuga was a popular sanctuary for its fertile land and discreet harbors with good anchorages. Renaming themselves “Brethren of the Coast,” each buccaneer took an oath to uphold a strict code of rules set forth in the Custom of the Coast.

 Among the most famous pirate to pledge his allegiance was Welsh-born Henry Morgan, also known as The Pirate King. In 1654, Morgan took part in an unsuccessful English attack on Santo Domingo, after which he became an active privateer with the Brethren of the Coast, unofficially sponsored by the English government. After a decade of chasing Spaniards around the Western Caribbean, Henry Morgan ended up second in command of these famed buccaneers. In 1666, the first in command died and Morgan was promoted to Admiral of the Brethren of the Coast. He spent a majority of his life harrying Spanish ports throughout the West Indies and Panama. Morgan was one of the few pirates ever knighted and died in 1688 as the Governor of Jamaica. This brave and controversial Captain Morgan is now (figuratively) preserved in his namesake Jamaican rum.

 During the next century, many of history’s most notorious pirates and privateers found their way to Santo Domingo, including the famed Edward “Blackbeard” Teach, who dropped anchor in Hispaniola in 1718, just a few months before he went to his watery grave off the coast of North Carolina.  Less prolific than Morgan and Blackbeard - and far less fortunate- was Captain William Kidd, “The Unlucky Pirate” who sailed into Hispaniola in 1699 to swap out his ship, just narrowly escaping authorities. Jean Lafitte, the gentleman pirate of New Orleans lived in Santo Domingo while under French rule during the Napoleonic wars. Despite the violent ending for many pirates, these admirable rogues, bloodthirsty criminals and untamed spirits live on in poems, ballads and legends. Their spirits are felt throughout the Dominican Republic.  

 Today, Santo Domingo is a vibrant, bustling city of two million people with the typical modern urban sprawl. Parts of the original city are preserved in the Colonial Zone, where a wander along narrow streets propel visitors back in time to Renaissance Spain. A wonderful collection of sixteenth century palatial homes, churches and towers complement a wide range of historical artifacts on display in more than a dozen museums, including cannonballs lodged in a door during Drake’s attack.  The importance of Santo Domingo’s position in history was recognized in 1994 when the America’s first city was deservingly designated a World Heritage site by UNESCO.

 On April 26, 1717, notorious pirate, “Black Sam” Bellamy went to a watery grave when his flagship, Whydah, sunk off the coast of Cape Cod in a brutal nor’easter. Most of the crew and a belly full of booty went down with the ship, lying buried under the shifting sand for more than 250 years. Tales of Black Sam’s legendary treasure were passed down through the centuries.

 English-born Bellamy was the scourge of the Caribbean, terrorizing and plundering European fleets, often with the British Royal Navy in hot pursuit.  In 1716, Black Sam made his most prized seizure- the famed and fast slave ship, Whydah Galley, which he stockpiled with plunder from more than fifty other vessels. Bursting at the seams with liquor, ivory, gold and silver, the Whydah headed north along the Atlantic coast to a pirate hideout in Maine. According to tradition, the Whydah diverted to Cape Cod to retrieve Bellamy’s mistress, Maria Hallett from Eastham. The captain had the misfortune of sailing directly into a furious storm during which the Whydah was dashed to pieces on the rocks just a quarter mile off the coast of Wellfleet. The secrets of the Whydah remained hidden until 1984. 

Treasure hunter and Cape Cod native, Barry Clifford was raised on pirate lore and spent his adult life researching the Whydah. Clifford was certain it would be found. Fifteen years of intensive underwater archaeological research paid off when, in 1984 the expedition made an important discovery of coins dating to 1715. Skeptics required nothing short of an artifact emblazoned with the name of the ship before the wreck would be confirmed as the Whydah. Clifford’s smoking gun came the following year in the form of a bell engraved with the words “Whydah Galley- 1716.”  

The Whydah became the first authenticated pirate ship discovered in North America and one of only two from which loot has been recovered. To date, more than 100,000 objects have been salvaged, many of which are on display (including the bell) at its namesake museum, located on MacMillan Wharf in Provincetown, MA. It also serves as a working lab, where many of the finds are exhibited as they are being cleaned up. Leaves a little to the imagination!

Educational displays offer valuable and surprising insight to eighteenth-century piracy. You’ll find no proverbial rum bottles or eye-patches here! Rooms are chock full of artifacts ranging from intimate personal items and clothing to navigational equipment and weapons. Among the finds is an important collection of West African gold jewelry, reinforcing the pirate’s connection with the slave trade. Black Sam Bellamy may have been a rebel rogue, but according to research, he was a well-dressed, swashbuckling dandy of a thug, with a taste for the finer things in life. Not one’s traditional vision of pirates. This discovery has rewritten the way life aboard a pirate ship is viewed and the Whydah Museum does a fantastic job telling the story.  For more information call (508) 487-8899 or view www.whydah.com.

International Talk Like A Pirate Day - September 19^th

Ahoy, Maties! Don’t forget t’observe Talk Like A Pirate Day on September 19^th.  Brush up on yer pirate lingo and learn the subtleties of Pirattitude at the official website: www.talklikeapirate.com. Off ye go, now! Arrrr…

" ... she brought forth her firstborn son, and wrapped him in swaddling clothes, and laid him in a manger, because there was no room for them in the inn ...

This line of text has been visualized a thousand times over. The Christmas season is centered on the events leading up to the birth of Christ and one of its most traditional holiday images is the Nativity.  Statues of the Holy Family adorn mantels and elaborate manger scenes sprawl beneath Christmas trees- and not much about this has changed in seven hundred years.  While images of the Virgin and Christ child were painted in Christian catacombs as far back as the ancient Roman era, it wasn’t until the fourteenth century that the representation of the Nativity as we know it came into popular culture.  The gospels of Saint Luke and Saint Matthew offer the most detailed accounts of the birth of Christ. It’s from these Biblical texts the traditional visual images are drawn.

The first nativity scene is believed to have been conceived by the Italian monk-turn-saint, Francis of Assisi, who is credited for humanizing religion and calling attention to the beauty of the physical world.  As the story goes, in the year 1223, Francis celebrated Christmas in the small town of Grecio. The monastery chapel was not large enough to hold midnight mass, so an altar was created in a nearby grotto. To aid worshippers in the visual contemplation of the birth of Christ, Francis prepared a wooden manager with hay, installed a live donkey and ox, and kindled a number of candles and torches, transforming Grecio into what his biographer called “a second Bethlehem.”  The saint’s Christmas tradition was immediately embraced.  Recreations of the Nativity spread across Europe, finding its way into the repertoire of French, Dutch and Spanish painters. 

 The manner in which the Christmas story was portrayed in Renaissance art dramatically evolved over time, mirroring changes in society and shifts in religious attitude. Its depiction moved from a narrow, sacred vision of mother and child to the full-blown cast of humans and animals persisting to the modern day.

At the dawn of the Renaissance, artisans’ biggest patrons were the church and the wealthy nobles who endowed religious institutions. A majority of early commissioned paintings were both a public display of wealth, and also a ‘picture book’ of Christian doctrine for a mostly illiterate population. Two very popular themes permeated the art of the time- and not just at Christmas: the Adoration of the Child and the Annunciation- the moment Archangel Gabriel, appeared to tell the Virgin Mary she would give birth to Jesus.  The paintings were intended to teach about the birth of Christ and the virtues of his mother.

  “ ... And the angel said unto her Fear not, Mary: for thou hast found favor with God. And, behold, thou shalt conceive in thy womb, and bring forth a son, and shall call his name Jesus."

 During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the “Cult of the Virgin” thrust Mary into the artistic limelight. She was worshipped by Roman Catholics as the ‘Mother of God’ and ‘Bride of Christ,’ so ‘Our Lady’ became the central, often larger-than-life, figure of Nativity paintings for several centuries. Her role in the birth of Christ became one of the most prominent aspects of the story. Countless images of devoted mother and holy child pervade early Renaissance art.

 The Annunciation paintings held two important meanings for the faithful: the first being the incarnation- or conception- of Christ, which is the central tenant to the Christmas story. The second being the vision of Mary as the ultimate example of womanhood, chastity and humility. The Virgin’s queen-like demeanor in early Renaissance painting showed dignified seriousness or somber sadness, indicative of her inherent knowledge of what was in store for her son.  It took two centuries for the depiction of the Holy Family to evolve into a more ‘earthly’ image, with both Mary and Joseph portrayed as humble, human parents of Jesus, surrounded by their barnyard of animals.

Until the sixteenth century, Nativity and Annunciation paintings remained mystical and devout. The Italian painter-monk, Fra Angelico (c.1436) produced one of the Renaissance’s most sublime Annunciations for the Convent of San Marco in Florence.  Mary sits reverently, looking holy and radiant, as even God’s messenger, Gabriel seems awe-inspired. Traditional Annunciation scenes take place either in a bedroom near a bed (to imply the conception of child) or in an enclosed space near a garden, symbolizing both Mary’s womb and her virginity, as in Fra Angelico’s version. The two figures are usually separated by architectural features, creating a certain solemnity and formality between the angel and Virgin.

 As the Renaissance progressed, the rise of capitalism was particularly significant for art. Patronage passed from the church to princely families. Artists were now employed as commonly by wealthy merchants and bankers as by bishops and popes.  Rather than glorify god, this new breed of patron, be they religious, preferred to glorify themselves and their material world. Artists now had the freedom to step away from the rigid constraints of early Renaissance painting to explore new ways of representing religious themes- the nativity included.

  The desire for overtly pious art waned. As artistic ideals and values shifted away from the supernatural to the natural world, the mood in both Nativity and Annunciation scenes progressed from a divine, heavenly scene to one of a more "human" or worldly nature.  The Virgin was given a motherly dimension, celebrating her earthly beauty. Annunciations developed a personal feeling by bringing Gabriel and Mary together into a single, intimate space, usually a bedroom. The Virgin was now presented as the ultimate example of humility- inviting the viewer to contemplate the image and adopt this same virtue.

 Three wise Kings "… opened their treasures, they presented unto him gifts: gold, and frankincense, and myrrh..." 

 International trade encouraged import and export not only of goods, but also of ideas. Important artistic exchanges took place between northern and southern Europe beginning in the fifteenth century. Italian artists are credited with the increasing naturalism of the human figure and the working out of perspective. Flemish masters (modern day Netherlands and northern France) developed oil painting, which aided in the realistic rendering of humans.  These new techniques were shared across borders as merchants and artisans traveled through Europe.

 This new realism would come in handy as a more personal approach to religious devotion prompted a more personal art form to develop.  Increasingly lifelike figures and detailed landscapes aided viewers in meditation, drawing them into the scene. While nativities retained an overall mystical and heavenly character, the Holy Family seems almost commonplace in many of these same paintings.  The art of the Christmas story was evolving.

 The Virgin Mary is no longer enthroned, but rather kneeling in front of baby Jesus; sometimes inside a cave, rather than in a stable. This particular image is not found in the Bible, but drawn from the 13^th century writings of St. Bridget of Sweden’s vision.  Joseph likewise, found his way into the standard iconography of the nativity scene. He is almost universally depicted as a bearded old man, based on the apocryphal book of James and shown asleep or resting his head on his arm- symbolic of his secondary role in Christ’s birth.

Jesus finally became the central figure of his own birthday story. No longer an aloof, statuesque Christ child being adored by a Queen Mother, but rather a living, breathing baby Jesus, surrounded by adoring parents.  Quite often, a spotlight shining down from Heaven is the only clue as to the divinity of this bouncing baby boy. 

As humanism blossomed, the distinction between the profane and sacred blurred to a point where objects of everyday life were elevated to a spiritual level. Renaissance artists created complex and busy paintings, integrating a host of peripheral figures, such as the three Magi, shepherds, angels and animals. Their surroundings became increasingly domestic.

The wonders of this world turned up in the nativity as a rich visual symbolism. The ox and donkey are traditionally found in the Renaissance stable. Drawing on the words of the Old Testament prophet, Isaiah, (“The ox knows his master; the ass his mater’s crib.”) even the lowliest of animals recognize the son of God. Dogs are interpreted as fidelity and doves as peace.

Artists wreathed their scenes in botanicals and natural vegetation, which also held symbolic attributes, understood by all.  Naturally, given the outdoor setting of the nativity, a number of flowers, plants and fruits could easily be integrated into the paintings. Violets symbolize humility, the Virgin’s most desirable virtue to be emulated. Columbine, with leaves shaped like a dove stand for the Holy Spirit and fidelity.  Sheaths of wheat carry several sacred meanings such as fertility, growth and renewal. Also, it represents the Roman Catholic Eucharist, in which Christ becomes the body (or the bread) and alludes to the town of Jesus’ birth- Bethlehem, which translates to “house of bread.”

Most commonly used is the lily, also referred to as a ‘sword lily,’ which has two meanings. One represents the purity of the Virgin (hence the saying, “pure as a lily”) and another symbolizes the sword that would pierce her heart upon Jesus’ death. Almost every Renaissance image of the Virgin and Child or nativity contains some allusion to the crucifixion or resurrection. Baby Jesus is often shown holding a pomegranate, the red juice representing his blood and suffering, while the multiple seeds signify the church held together by one God.  Ivy suggests eternal life, but the most common representation of immortality is the peacock, whose body, according to legend did not decay after death.

Throughout the Renaissance, painters did not look to antiquity to cloth their figures, but rather dressed them in the latest fashion of their own time period. Likewise, the characters were placed in contemporary architecture and interiors. Therefore, it is possible trace an evolution of fashion, interior décor, tapestries and landscapes by studying nativity and annunciation scenes between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries. 

So this year, when the Christmas cards pour in, make note of the surprisingly large number of Renaissance nativities. Look beyond the holiday greeting and study the details. You’ll find there’s a lot more than meets the eye.  

One of the most recognizable fortresses in the world rears up from a volcanic crag in the heart of Edinburgh, Scotland. There is a magical resonance about the mighty Edinburgh Castle, which is seemingly buttressed by the living earth; permanently affixed to Castle Rock.  Anyone trekking up the steep streets through the castle’s zigzagging terraces is rewarded with spectacular panoramic views around the city and into the Highlands. One’s imagination easily takes flight when perched above the city on this 340 million year-old rock 

Ten thousand years ago, receding glaciers gouged out the area surrounding Castle Rock, which now defines the west end of the famed Royal Mile. For three millennia, humans inhabited this strategic hilltop location. While material evidence of ancient settlements has been excavated, the first written record of Edinburgh Castle surfaces around AD 600 in the epic Welsh poem, the Gododdin. The elegiac story relays the tale of 360 warrior-princes feasting for a year in the great hall at Din Eidyn, or the ‘stronghold of Eidyn,’ before marching off to a glorious death in battle. In AD 638, the fort at Din Eidyn was successfully besieged by the Angles and its name Anglicized to Edinburgh.

 Having the earliest literary reference to King Arthur, the Gododdin eternally connects his legend to the city. The craggy hill opposite the castle is named “Arthur’s Seat,”  while the castle itself, known in the middle ages as Castellum Puellarum (Castle of Women), is associated with the “Castle of Maidens,” home to Arthur’s sorceress half-sister, Morgen le Fay and her seductress fairy friends.    

Edinburgh Castle’s history is blurred with legend, but its true roots are traced to the eleventh century when Castle Rock became the site of a permanent fortress. King Malcolm II’s defeat of the English in 1018 secured the region for Scotland.  The earliest royal dynasty attached to Edinburgh Castle, the Canmores ruled Scotland for two hundred years beginning in 1058.

 Malcolm Canmore, lived in exile before returning to Scotland to hunt down his father’s murderer- a story famously retold in Shakespeare’s MacBeth. Having avenged King Duncan’s death by slaying the real MacBeth, Malcolm moved into Edinburgh Castle and ruled for 35 years. His retaking of the Scottish throne was overshadowed by his wife Margaret’s saintly life, which is memorialized in the oldest building in the castle complex.

 Saint Margaret’s Chapel sits on the summit of the castle. Their son, King David I (1124-53) built the tiny church in 1120, dedicating it to his mother, Scotland’s only royal saint. The chapel served as the royal family’s private oratory until the sixteenth century, when it became a gunpowder repository during the Reformation. Saint Margaret must have turned in her grave, but rests in peace knowing the chapel survived the Wars of Independence. 

 Two contemporary statues (c. 1929) of Robert Bruce and William Wallace guard the castle. The picturesque east gatehouse, renovated in the nineteenth-century, replaced a severely functional gateway guarding the most vulnerable part of the castle- the entrance. In fact, most of the castle was rebuilt in the past five hundred years using a hodge-podge of architectural style: a medieval staircase, a Renaissance palace, baroque barracks and a twentieth-century war memorial.

 Naturally, a working castle takes a lot of fire- and Edinburgh was no different. The castle was a pawn in the power struggles between England and Scotland until 1296, when the Wars of Independence broke out. Scotland’s throne was up for grabs and two noble families laid claim to it, including the Bruces. King Edward I of England, known as the “Hammer of the Scots” invaded Scotland. Edinburgh Castle fell to British troops that same year.

 Fourteen years later the castle was back in Scottish hands, but not before the country was stripped of its royal regalia. Edward removed the crown jewels to his treasury. The Stone of Scone, a rock upon which all Scottish monarchs were crowned, was taken to Westminster Abbey.  It remained under the coronation throne until 1950, when Scottish students stole it back.  In 1996, the Queen officially returned the Stone of Destiny to its rightful place, where it remains in the Crown Room at Edinburgh Castle- under heavy security.

 It took seven hundred years for the Scottish regalia to come home, but only one daring attempt to win the castle back from the English.  June 1314, Longshank’s weakling son, Edward II was king, proving an opportune time for Scotland’s Robert Bruce to regain Edinburgh. Castle Rock is not the sort of place taken by storm, but rather by stealth! Soldiers created a diversion at the gatehouse while ‘commandos’ climbed the crag’s precipitous north face to take the castle by surprise. Scotland’s greatest prize fell into Bruce’s possession!

 
The years following Scotland’s independence, Edinburgh Castle grew into a true royal residence. Robert the Bruce’s son, David II (1356-71) rebuilt the castle.  Well-House Tower was built to protect the water supply, allowing occupants to hold out during long sieges. In 1367, he commissioned the massive L-shaped tower, now known as David’s Tower, but would not live to see its completion. He died in 1371.

 David’s son, Robert II, initiated two centuries of rule under a series of unfortunate King James and the ill-fated Mary, Queen of Scots.  James I was keen to emulate the continental Europe, but his rule (1406-37) was cut short by murdering conspirators. His young son, James II was smuggled into Edinburgh Castle where he plotted a most dastardly political assassination.

 To rid the royal family of the powerful Douglas clan, two Earls of Douglas were invited to dine with the king.  After a splendid feast, the young earls were presented a bull’s head- the symbol of condemnation. Shortly after, they were tried for treason and executed in the castle courtyard. The infamous Black Dinner of 1440 secured the throne for ten-year old James.

 James II stood at the threshold of Scotland’s Renaissance. Having married into a powerful French family, the Scottish monarchy saw unprecedented prestige. His patronage to the arts, literature and architecture, ensured the flourishing of Renaissance ideals. Edinburgh Castle became a royal residence during his reign (1437-60).  James’s obsession with artillery was his ultimate undoing. One of the two massive siege guns, given as a gift from his in-laws during the ongoing border wars with England, one of the prized cannons went off, killing him.  ‘Mons Meg,’ one of the most illustrious guns of medieval warfare is on display in the castle vaults.

 Another Stewart child-king takes the throne. James III spent most of his time in Edinburgh Castle (1460-88).  He redesigned the Palace Yard, now called Crown Square. Unpopular for his lavish lifestyle, James III was, not surprisingly, mysteriously murdered.

 The Golden Age of the Stewart Monarchy peaked under James IV (1488-1513). The handsome, well-educated king was an embodiment of chivalry, charisma and intelligence. He had several lovers and a dozen illegitimate children before securing a wife and male heir. James IV commissioned many of Scotland’s Renaissance masterpieces, including Edinburgh Castle’s Great Hall. It was completed for his marriage to Margaret Tudor, daughter of England’s Henry VII. The Great Hall’s splendid, original hammerbeam roof is carved with thistles and roses, symbolizing the union of Scotland with England. Today, an arsenal of medieval weapons embellishes the walls and the roof remains one of the most important timber structures in Scotland. James IV’s untimely death in the Battle of Flodden forced James V, age 2, onto the throne.

 James V (1513-42), another ambitious builder, drew inspiration from the opulent French court. He saw Scotland through its fullest flowering of Renaissance ideals. James upheld Scotland’s “auld alliance” with France by marrying Marie de Guise. Much to their Catholic dismay, a new Protestant religion was spreading like wildfire. Countries picked sides as a religious war was brewing.  James was passionate about suppressing this new “heresy.” Scotland’s first protestant was burned at the stake in 1528. The Reformation began and James’s daughter, Mary made the ultimate sacrifice for the crown.

 Mary Stewart was born six days before James V died. They never met and she was crowned Queen of Scotland before turning one. After a childhood in the courts of France, the tall, vivacious queen took up residence in the Palace at Holyrood in Edinburgh. Amidst religious turmoil and political intrigue, Mary moved to the safety of Edinburgh Castle where, in 1566, she gave birth to child to her only child in a room now known as “Queen Mary’s Room.”  James VI of Scotland, would eventually become King James I of England, thus uniting the crowns of both countries.

 Edinburgh Castle has, for a thousand years, been the superintendent of Scotland and serves as its national symbol. It’s operated by Historic Scotland. To learn more, visit www.historic-scotland.gov.uk/edinburghcastle. 

Edward I, also known as ‘Long Shanks’, reigned as King of England from 1271-1307. Though responsible for many administrative reforms continuing to this day, Edward is best known for his military campaigns to subdue Scotland and Wales. Beginning in 1277, Edward, ‘The Hammer of the Scots,’ spent an enormous amount of time and money constructing a ring of innovative castles strategically around Wales. 

Military history enthusiasts and Anglophiles alike will appreciate the latest book dedicated to this extensively documented subject. The Castles of Edward I in Wales 1277-1307 was released in 2007 as the 63^rd title in Osprey Publishing’s popular ‘Fortress’ series. This easy-to-read, 64-page book surveys Edward’s ambitious castle-building campaign, through which he stamped his authority over the Welsh province and into the Welsh landscape.  

Author Christopher Gravett, a former senior curator at the Royal Armouries, Tower of London and current curator of Woburn Abbey has advised on a variety of BBC television and film productions, as well as written several titles for Osprey. Gravett takes a complex amount of information and offers simple explanations of the development of Edwardian castles, the architectural innovations, foreign influences, and principles of defense.  Key sites, such as Caernarfon, Conwy and Beaumaris, are used to examine the evolving social, political and military functions within Edward’s Welsh fortresses.

The small book is beautifully illustrated with a nice mix of black and white and color photographs, vivid reconstructions, and detailed drawings and cross-sections. The Castles of Edward I in Wales is a good choice for non-specialists and anyone generally interested in military history or the medieval period.